top of page
Search

The Truth About Algae Supplements


ree


By Dr. Tim Trader ND, PhD


Algae supplements like Blue-Green Algae (Aphanizomenon flos-aquae), Spirulina, and Chlorella are sold for their potential health benefits. What is said about these products includes that they give immune support, and have antioxidant properties, and rich nutritional profiles. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (AFA) and Spirulina, both known as a blue-green algae, are reportedly high in phycocyanin (the pigmentation that gives the blue-green color) which can be considered an antioxidant. Both Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Spirulina have protein, vitamins, and minerals, and some studies suggest it can boost antibody production. Chlorella, a green alga, has folate and iron and the companies that sell Chlorella have linked it to various health benefits, including immune support, cholesterol balance, and weight management. 


There are some aspects that are not being told about these products (or misrepresented) that may make you think twice about using them. Here will be presented some facts about these supplements that may give question to their use as a health product.


Blue-Green Algae (Aphanizomenon flos-aquae) AFA

To start with, this article will look at Blue-Green Algae (Aphanizomenon flos-aquae) and then go on to the other so-called algae supplements. Blue-Green Algae (Aphanizomenon flos-aquae or AFA) from here on out it will be referred to as AFA. First of all, AFA (one last time, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae) and Spirulina are not a true alga, in reality they are cyanobacteria. (1)


Cyanobacteria comprise of autotrophic gram-negative bacteria that can obtain biological energy via oxygenic photosynthesis, or in other words, creates energy like plants do with photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria" refers to their bluish green color (the phycocyanin), which forms the basis of cyanobacteria's informal common name, blue-green algae. The point is that cyanobacteria are not a true alga, but a bacterium that is mistaken for an alga.


AFA as well as other cyanobacteria produces neurotoxins and cyanotoxins. (2) AFA is not the wholesome supplement that you hear all the hype about. Cyanotoxins are abundant in cyanobacteria, and once more, cyanotoxins have been found in AFA. (3)


One group of those cyanotoxins in AFA, are called microcystins. (4) Microcystins are a group of hepatotoxins (substances that can cause liver damage) one of the microcystins in AFA is Cylindrospermopsin and then there is another non-microcystin concerning toxin that is called Saxitoxin, a known neurotoxin. (5) The combination of Cylindrospermopsin (the liver toxin) and Saxitoxin (the neurotoxin) are commonly known as primary toxins in algae blooms that do serious health damage when people are in contact with waterways that contain algae blooms. In the United States, government agencies like the EPA and CDC institute warnings to stay away from bodies of water with algae blooms, this is not a light matter, it is taken seriously. Cylindrospermopsin is a toxic alkaloid produced by certain cyanobacteria (like in algae blooms, AFA, and Spirulina), which can accumulate in the liver over time (when taken in at small amounts), inhibit protein synthesis, disrupt metabolism, and lead to various health issues including chronic liver disease and cancer. (6) The range of nerve damage that Saxitoxin causes can start with tingling and numbness and can progress to muscle paralysis and even respiratory failure. (7) (8)


Again, both of these toxins, Cylindrospermopsin and Saxitoxin are what are found to be dangerous in algae blooms of fresh water and marine waters (9) (10) AFA does naturally create algae blooms that are toxic (11) it is not benign, let alone part of a health promoting product.


AFA supplements have been found to have above healthy limits of microcystins (12) sometimes AFA products have had up to 50 to 60 times the maximum acceptable concentration of microcystins. Not just a little over the limit, but many times more than what has been found to be safe, let alone healthy.

AFA also has BMAA (β-N-methylamino-l-alanine). (13) BMAA is a neurotoxin that has been linked to Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) (also known as Lou Gehrig's disease) and Parkinsonism-Dementia Complex (PDC). Research suggests that BMAA, produced by certain cyanobacteria, may contribute to the development of these neurodegenerative diseases, particularly in areas with a high incidence of ALS/PDC, such as on the island of Guam, (14) (15) where ALS has been historically higher than most of the world, yet it is now declining, due to the decrease in consuming high BMAA food sources.  BMAA is a non-protein amino acid that can be incorporated into proteins, potentially disrupting their structure and function, and may play a part in Alzheimer’s and typical Parkinson’s disease (16) as well.  BMAA may disrupt cellular processes like protein folding, mitochondrial energy production, and the nervous system's immune response, all of which are implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. Specifically, BMAA has been linked to the aggregation and misfolding of alpha-synuclein.  Alpha-synuclein is a protein that plays a crucial role in the development and progression of Parkinson's disease.(17) Alpha-synuclein may be a protein primarily known for its role in Parkinson's disease,  it also plays a significant role in Alzheimer's disease. In Alzheimer's, Alpha-synuclein is a common co-pathology and can exacerbate the aggregation of tau protein, a key component of neurofibrillary tangles. (18) BMAA induces neuronal degeneration via overactivation of glutamate receptors. (19)


AFA also has LPS (lipopolysaccharides) which can trigger a strong immune response, leading to inflammation, and in high concentrations, can be considered toxic, potentially causing shock or organ failure (20) LPS has been found to, in part, to cause autoimmune diseases,  (21) heart disease, (22)  fatty liver disease, (23) type 2 diabetes, (24) and cancer. (25)

And then there is the pseudovitamin B12 issue and it is real. (26) Pseudovitamin B12 is a corrinoid compound, structurally similar to vitamin B12, yet lacking the biological activity and coenzyme function of vitamin B12 in humans. It's a structural analog of cobalamin, a natural corrinoid with a structure similar to the vitamin B12 group of vitamers. Pseudovitamin B12 can be found in supplements like ALA, where it is often the predominant cobamide. Basically, pseudovitamin B12 does not function as real vitamin B12, (27) It lacks the vitamin activity and does not contribute to the health benefits associated with real vitamin B12. Yet, pseudovitamin B12 gets in the way of actual vitamin B12 reception and function. (28) It is kind of like breaking off the head of a key, leaving the rest of the key in the lock. The pseudovitamin B12 is accepted into the cell vitamin B12 receptor, but the pseudovitamin B12 will not allow the cell to work properly as it would with vitamin B12 and will not allow real vitamin B12 to get into the cell and do its job.


One particular component of cyanobacteria that is actually advertised in the AFA supplement advertisements is that AFA has phenylethylamine. (29) (30) phenylethylamine is an amphetamine. (31) Amphetamines are neurotoxic and cause mitochondrial damage. (32) (33) (34) Because of phenylethylamine’s stimulation affects, people feel healthier and more vibrant, when in fact it is robbing the systems of the body of vital energy and nutrients and damaging the nervous system.

To put this into context, Adderall is of the phenylethylamine class. (35) Adderall, a multi-amphetamine medication, that primarily affects the brain and central nervous system by increasing levels of dopamine and norepinephrine, which are neurotransmitters involved in attention, focus, and energy. This can lead to improved focus, reduced impulsivity, and increased wakefulness and is used for individuals with ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) or narcolepsy. However, it can also cause various side effects, including decreased appetite, insomnia, anxiety, and increased heart rate and blood pressure. Prolonged use of the drug can lead to a range of physical and psychological issues.


Amphetamines (including phenylethylamine) cause nerve damage and have been linked to neurodegenerative disorders as well as inhibiting mitochondria function. (36) Particularly, amphetamines inhibit mitochondrial electron transport chain’s complexes, perturbations of mitochondrial clearance mechanisms, interference with mitochondrial dynamics, and oxidative modifications in mitochondrial macromolecules, (37) and can cause DNA damage with high production of ROS (reactive oxygen species) otherwise known as oxidative damage. (38)


Spirulina

Now let us talk about the other cyanobacterium, Spirulina. (39) Or otherwise known as Arthrospira platensis or Spirulina platensis for the scientific names. Like AFA, Spirulina also has microcystins (40) (41) (42) (43)  and cyanotoxins (44) including BMAA (45) (46) (47)  but we also find N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (AEG), and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB)  in Spirulina as well (48) (49) N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (AEG) is an isomer of the neurotoxin BMAA, and is considered toxic as a small molecule that forms the backbone of peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), which are synthetic analogs of DNA. (50) This means that AEG will interfere with DNA replication and interfere with mitochondrial function.  One more time, N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (AEG) has been shown to be neurotoxic and inciting other potential health issues including cancer. (52) 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) has also been identified also as a neurotoxin, and will interfere with DNA replication, like what happens in cancer formation. (53) DAB has also been shown to cause liver damage. (54)

 

Research suggests that 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB), can also possibly be toxic to the gut microbiome. (55) 2,4-diaminobutyric acid may damage the mucus layer that protects the gut lining. This could lead to a closer proximity of microbes and their metabolites to the gut lining, potentially compromising its barrier function and stimulating inflammation. (56)

 

Speaking of the gut microbiome…Microcystins, the toxins produced by AFA and Spirulina, can significantly impact the gut microbiome, potentially leading to alterations in microbial composition and function, and even affecting host health. Specifically, microcystin exposure has been shown to reduce gut microbiome diversity, shift bacterial community structure, and impair the production of beneficial short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The biggest culprit is a microcystin, that has not been mentioned yet, called microcystins-LR, which is the most formable microcystins found in toxic algae blooms. (57) (58)(59) (60) (61) and microcystins-LR is found in Spirulina (62) and in AFA. (63)

 

BMAA can affect the gut microbiome as well, including intestinal inflammation (64) and as talked about earlier, BMAA has implications for neurological diseases. BMAA can induce gut dysbiosis, trigger immune responses, and potentially lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, potentially contributing to the development of neurological conditions like Parkinson's disease. (65) (66) (67)

 

 The presence of BMAA in cyanobacteria including Spirulina raises concerns about the potential health risks associated with its consumption, especially for individuals with existing neurological conditions. BMAA has been shown to produce a host of synaptic disturbances related to neurotransmitters crucial for neurodegenerative diseases like acetylcholine, which is a key player in Alzheimer’s disease; BMAA can cause a decrease in dopaminergic neuron activity and alter dopamine signaling, which has a central role in Parkinson’s disease; and glutamate, a neurotransmitter in central motor neurons which are affected by the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). (68)

 

Not only is there the point of what has been pointed out about cyanobacteria toxins but there is matter of unavoidable contamination of Spirulina which is grown in an open environment which allows other pathogens to cling to the Spirulina. Pathogens like Bacillus cereus and Klebsiella pneumoniae which have their own toxic effects (69), and these pathogens can stick around in the digestive system long after Spirulina has been discontinued. Let alone the risk of a multitude of other contaminations, which are possible for all of the cyanobacteria and algae products produced in open air facilities.

Spirulina has been shown to cause autoimmune diseases like bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus foliaceus, (70) as well as other autoimmune diseases. (71) Studies indicate that Spirulina may potentially worsen or trigger autoimmune conditions, especially in individuals with predispositions. It acts as a potent stimulant of the immune system, and its immunostimulatory properties can exacerbate autoimmune responses. (72)

Spirulina has been associated with Rhabdomyolysis which is a condition where skeletal muscle tissue breaks down, releasing its contents, including myoglobin, into the bloodstream. This can damage the kidneys and potentially lead to kidney failure, along with other complications. (73) (74)

 

Spirulina also has LPS (lipopolysaccharides). (75) “Cyanobacterial LPS” as in ALA and Spirulina, is involved in various human diseases including skin diseases, gastro-intestinal issues, liver issues, respiratory diseases, fever, allergy, cardiovascular diseases and headache. These are indirect effects caused by LPS and lead to serious immune responses. (76) LPS from cyanobacteria has been shown to cause high blood pressure, (77)(78) LPS can assist in creating atherosclerosis, (79) and so contributes to heart disease, (80) (81) type 2 diabetes, (82) and of course, autoimmune disease, (83) and even cancer. (84) (85) Bottom line here is LPS from cyanobacteria is not something you want in your blood system.

 

Spirulina is often marketed as a source of vitamin B12. However, the primary form of B12 found in Spirulina is not the active, biologically useful form, but rather the similar molecule called pseudovitamin B12 as previously talked about in ALA. (86) (87)

The pseudovitamin B12 in Spirulina competes with the active form of vitamin B12 for absorption in the cells of the body, potentially hindering the absorption of actual vitamin B12. (88)

 

Spirulina also has Phenylethylamine, (89) though it seems to be in lesser amounts than what is found in AFA. It is also possible that other, potentially toxin-producing, species of cyanobacteria may grow together with the desired Spirulina making it higher in phenylethylamine than what would be normally found in Spirulina. In a study of 31 Spirulina supplements available on the Greek market detected an extremely diverse microbiota of other cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria (pathogenic bacteria). Eighteen of the thirty-one products contained from one to five additional cyanobacterial species, while a very high number of other bacteria were detected in ten samples. (90)

 

One troubling case study reported that Spirulina has even been seen to cause seizures in a newborn baby from the mother’s supplementation during pregnancy. (91)

Phenethylamine and amphetamines have been shown to induce seizures. (92)(93)(94) when you think about it, there is no surprise there.

 

Chlorella

 

Unlike AFA and Spirulina, Chlorella is not a cyanobacteria. Chlorella is a microalga, a eukaryotic organism, while cyanobacteria are Prokaryotic bacteria (cyanobacteria). Chlorella belongs to the Chlorophyta (green algae) group and so may not have the same problems, and then again, maybe not. (95)

 

Chlorella is often touted as a good source of vitamin B12, but the form it contains, can be either biologically active or the pseudovitamin. While Chlorella does contain vitamin B12, studies have also shown the presence of pseudovitamin B12, which was presented earlier as a non-active B12 analogue. (96)

Chlorella species cannot make vitamin B12 themselves, and so, the Chlorella has to be contaminated with B12-synthesizing bacteria, where vitamin B12 can vary from one chlorella production to another. (97)

Note that Chlorella is not considered to be a reliable, sufficient source of vitamin B12.

 

Chlorella cell walls also contain lipopolysaccharide. (LPS) (98) (99) (100)

Lipopolysaccharide is present in the cellular wall of Chlorella; however it is not made by the alga itself. This indicates, once more, that there is some contamination in Chlorella products. For a deeper dive into Lipopolysaccharide, LPS is an endotoxin found on the surface of all gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli, cyanobacteria or Salmonella and is a potent immune system activator. When LPS binds to receptors on the surface of macrophages (phagocytic cells of the innate immune system), it activates them and induces them to release pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor TNFα, and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) [2]. Chlorella, in effect, puts our innate immunity on high alert via LPS, an endotoxin it happens to share with some lethal bacteria. Too much Lipopolysaccharide leads to septic shock, which we would be well advised to avoid, (101) (102)

 

Chlorella has been shown to be contaminated with microcystins as well. (103)

Chlorella, being an alga, cannot produce cyanotoxins, but cyanotoxins are found in Chlorella supplements. Again, cyanotoxins including microcystins are toxins produced by cyanobacteria, so there must be contamination in the production of Chlorella, if it has cyanotoxins. (104)

 

To reiterate, cyanotoxins are diverse and can cause a range of health problems, including gastrointestinal issues, liver damage, and neurotoxicity. And if Chlorella can be contaminated with microcystins, though the levels are often lower than in other so called “algae” like Spirulina and AFA. The fact is that Chlorella can be infected by these toxins.  (105)

 

This cannot be stated enough, information suggests that Chlorella, itself, generally does not contain the same kind of neurotoxins, such as BMAA, that are found in cyanobacteria like Spirulina and AFA. However, it's important to be aware that contamination is a real threat. Chlorella can be susceptible to contamination during cultivation, potentially introducing harmful toxins or other microorganisms. This contamination can occur in both outdoor and indoor cultivation systems. (106)

One of the ways Chlorella can be contaminated is with cyanobacteria, and two of the known bacteria that are found with Chlorella are AFA and Spirulina. (107)

Chlorella by itself does not create BMAA, of course, going along with being contaminated with cyanobacteria comes BMAA in addition to other cyanotoxins. (108)

in one study, Chlorella showed more microcystins than the cyanobacteria AFA and Spirulina that were also tested.  (109)

 

Chlorella has also been shown to contain Phenylethylamine, (110) (111) though it may not have the same potency as AFA or even Spirulina, it can have some stimulative effects and artificial pleasurable feelings. But again, this is due to the contamination situation as Chlorella is not a cyanobacteria and cannot make the Phenylethylamine itself.

 

And the contamination of Chlorella can be a lot more than just some cyanobacteria.

 (112) Some small creatures have also been found in Chlorella supplements, like Amoebas, Protozoans, and small crustations known as copepods. Copepods may make Chlorella not really a vegan product or suitable for vegetarians and having amoebas, as well as other species may make Chlorella not very healthful as these creatures can multiply and thrive inside our digestive system.

 

There are other possible toxic contaminations that have been found in Chlorella from cyanobacteria, (113) that can cause serious implications. This includes anatoxin a, and arsenic. The bottom line is that all of these so-called algae products are not being managed for purity and health impact as the contamination can cause serious implications.

 

And there are instances where ingesting Chlorella has produced afflictions like thrombocytopenia, low levels of platelets in the blood. (114) Chlorella has been shown to cause DNA damage and has been proven to be genotoxic (115) Chlorella has been tied to acute tubulointerstitial nephritis, a kidney disorder (116) and then there is a case report of Chlorella induced psychosis, which after discontinuing Chlorella, was resolved. And yet, the psychosis came back after the supplement was restarted and again resolved upon discontinuation. (117) Which leaves no question as to the Chlorella being the cause.

 

These products are not super foods, they are… not food…

 

If you were to consume any cyanobacteria or Chlorella as a full meal, overconsumption of so-called algae supplements can lead to various adverse effects, primarily due to the potential presence of toxins like the microcystins, and saxitoxin and including other contaminants like heavy metals and pathogens found in open production of the cyanobacteria and Chlorella. Microcystins, when consumed in high amounts, can stress and damage the liver and kidneys. (118) In laboratory animals, microcystins have also been associated with the development of tumors. (119) (120) Saxitoxins in copious amounts create nerve damage leading to paralysis and respiratory failure (121) and memory impairment. 


Cyanotoxins cause gastrointestinal issues: symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain can occur. including other symptoms: headache, sore throat, dry cough, blistering around the mouth, and even pneumonia are also potential side effects. (123) AFA, Spirulina and Chlorella have been shown to cause worsening of autoimmune conditions: Since these supplements can be immunostimulatory, it may worsen autoimmune conditions like lupus, multiple sclerosis, or rheumatoid arthritis. (124) Then there are blood clotting issues: AFA and Spirulina and by contamination Chlorella may have an anticoagulant effect, increasing the risk of bruising and bleeding, especially for individuals with bleeding disorders or those taking blood thinners. (125) Is all of this worth feeling good? It sure doesn’t sound healthy. You don’t get this from consuming fruits and vegetables.

 

What can we do instead

 

Do you want health and vitality, then you cannot just take a powder or a pill to do it.

Eating a plant exclusive diet, low in fat, high in fruits and not forgetting your vegetables is essential. Getting the nutrition your body requires to function fully is something most people do not get. And it doesn't become complete with just a pill or two. Fruits and vegetables are the highest foods in antioxidants, they have more than enough protein, and are abundant in vitamins and minerals, the healthy things that the AFA, Spirulina, and Chlorella are said to give you, but you find many times more abundant in fruits and vegetables.

 

You have to give the mitochondria what it needs to give you energy, it requires glucose, like what is found in fruits, along with the oxygen you breathe in. And then follow it up with antioxidants found in fruits and vegetables, that protect the mitochondria so that it will run efficiently. Stimulants like amphetamines (and one more time, phenylethylamine in cyanobacteria is an amphetamine) can impair mitochondrial function, leading to reduced energy production and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS). This can result in mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage, contributing to long-term negative effects. (126)

 

Phenylethylamine is associated with positive feelings and mood enhancement. Phenylethylamine works by stimulating the release of "feel-good" neurotransmitters in the brain, including dopamine, that acts as a monoaminergic activity enhancer (MAE) for several neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters play a key role in regulating mood, promoting feelings of happiness, pleasure, and well-being. Phenylethylamine produces effects commonly associated with stimulants, such as increased energy, focus, and concentration. (127) This is the “healthy feeling” you get from Phenylethylamine, and it pushes your nervous system and your brain into feeling good, and yet, it leaves a deficiency instead of an abundance.

 

But consuming fruits and vegetables can positively impact your mental well-being. Research suggests that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, including those high in antioxidants, may be linked to reduced symptoms of depression, stress, and anxiety. (128) (129) (130) (131) (132) Fruits have been shown to increase dopamine and serotonin (133) without stimulating the production which leaves a deficiency afterward.

 

Fruit reduces inflammation. Several fruits are known for their anti-inflammatory properties due to their rich content of antioxidants and other beneficial compounds. Berries, cherries, and pomegranates are particularly notable for their ability to reduce chronic inflammation and may lower the risk of chronic diseases. (134) Lowering inflammation reduces irritation. Inflammation can cause or exacerbate irritation in the body. Inflammation is a natural response to injury or infection, and it involves the activation of immune cells and the release of chemicals that can lead to redness, swelling, and pain. This can directly irritate tissues and stimulate nerve endings, causing a sensation of irritation or discomfort. (135)

 

Exercise has also been found to reduce depression, stress and anxiety. Regular physical activity, even moderate-intensity exercise, can improve mood, boost endorphins, and help manage depression, stress, and anxiety. Studies have shown that exercise can be as effective as medication or therapy for mild to moderate symptoms of depression, stress and anxiety. (136) (137) (138)

 

 A low fat-diet has been found necessary for mitochondria health, because a high-fat diet can negatively impact mitochondria by causing DNA damage, reducing their quantity and function, and disrupting mitochondrial dynamics. A high-fat diet can also lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and impaired energy metabolism.  (139) (140) (141)

 

Fruits on the other hand, through their various nutrients and compounds, play a role in supporting mitochondrial health and function. Mitochondria are responsible for energy production, cellular respiration, calcium regulation, and apoptosis. Fruits can support mitochondrial function by providing essential nutrients, antioxidants, and by influencing factors like lowering oxidative stress. (142) You don’t see that from so called algae supplements.

 

Some studies suggest that certain fruits and vegetables, especially those rich in flavones (a group of antioxidants), may be associated with increased mitochondrial biogenesis, the process of forming new mitochondria. (143)

 

Exercise, particularly endurance exercise, positively impacts mitochondria. It can improve mitochondrial function, increase their number, and enhance overall energy production. This happens through various mechanisms, including stimulating mitochondrial biogenesis (creating new mitochondria), promoting mitochondrial turnover (degrading and replacing damaged mitochondria), and regulating mitochondrial respiration (the process of energy production). (144) (145)

 

Reducing inflammation, fueling the mitochondria and creating mitochondrial biogenesis and supporting brain function without stimulation for emotional wellness…These are things that ALA, Spirulina and Chlorella cannot do for you, that fruits and vegetables can.

 

And when you are looking at getting the best nutrition and reducing your toxic load, eating organic fruit and vegetables becomes the most healthful way to eat possible. (146) And it supplies the nutrients needed for the mitochondria to give you the energy that you need, (147) reduces the irritation and inflammation with antioxidants (148), and feeds your gut microbiome to give you the health that you don’t find in a pill or powder. (149) (150)

Overall, it comes down to what you are eating, are you being active, whether you are getting enough sleep, and other lifestyle factors. Or you can force your body with stimulants and toxins to achieve a failing function. It seems stimulants and toxins are the norm for most of our modern civilization, of course it isn’t healthy, and yet we see it every day. Adopting a healthy lifestyle not only ensures you may live longer, but also you live that life, disease and symptom free.

 

 

 

References

2.      Freshwater Cyanobacterial Toxins, Cyanopeptides and Neurodegenerative Diseases https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10057253/ 

3.      Presence and bioaccumulation of microcystins and cylindrospermopsin in food and the effectiveness of some cooking techniques at decreasing their concentrations: A review https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278691512008083

4.      Assessing potential health risks from microcystin toxins in blue-green algae dietary supplements https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10811570/ 

5.      A Systematic Literature Review for Evidence of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Toxigenicity in Recreational Waters and Toxicity of Dietary Supplements: 2000⁻2017 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29933577/ 

7.      Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning: A Case Series https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4100837/ 

9.      Cyanobacterial (Blue-Green Algal) Blooms: Tastes, Odors, and Toxins https://www.usgs.gov/centers/kansas-water-science-center/science/cyanobacterial-blue-green-algal-blooms-tastes-odors-and 

10. Cylindrospermopsin: A Decade of Progress on Bioaccumulation Research  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2857366/ 

11. Draft Genome Sequence of the Toxic Bloom-Forming Cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae NIES-81 https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/genomea.00044-14 

12. Microcystin Toxins at Potentially Hazardous Levels in Algal Dietary Supplements Revealed by a Combination of Bioassay, Immunoassay, and Mass Spectrometric Methods https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32597644/ 

13. LC–MS/MS determination of the isomeric neurotoxins BMAA (β-N-methylamino-l-alanine) and DAB (2,4-diaminobutyric acid) in cyanobacteria and seeds of Cycas revoluta and Lathyrus latifolius https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0041010109004838

14. β-Methylamino-L-alanine substitution of serine in SOD1 suggests a direct role in ALS etiology https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007225 

15. How does the neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine exist in biological matrices and cause toxicity? https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969724013949#:~:text=In%20the%20Guam%20ecosystem%2C%20BMAA,et%20al.%2C%202021 

 

16. Blue-green algae or cyanobacteria in the intestinal micro-flora may produce neurotoxins such as Beta-N-Methylamino-L-Alanine (BMAA) which may be related to development of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson-Dementia-Complex in humans and Equine Motor Neuron Disease in horses https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23146671/ 

17. Alpha-synuclein in Parkinson’s disease and other synucleinopathies: from overt neurodegeneration back to early synaptic dysfunction https://www.nature.com/articles/s41419-023-05672-9#:~:text=Main%20text-,The%20discovery%20of%20the%20critical%20role%20of%20%CE%B1%2Dsynuclein%20(%CE%B1,protein%20to%20prevent%20neurodegenerative%20disease 

 

18. Alpha-synuclein: a pathological factor with Aβ and tau and biomarker in Alzheimer’s disease https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9805257/ 

19. β-N-methylamino-l-alanine causes neurological and pathological phenotypes mimicking Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): The first step towards an experimental model for sporadic ALS https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1382668913000902 

20. Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides and human health – a review https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1489932/ 

22. Lipopolysaccharide responsiveness is an independent predictor of death in patients with chronic heart failure https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26264758/#:~:text=Lipopolysaccharide%20responsiveness%20is%20an%20independent,patients%20with%20chronic%20heart%20failure 

23. Endotoxins and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8586459/

25. Lipopolysaccharides increase the risk of colorectal cancer recurrence and metastasis due to the induction of neutrophil extracellular traps after curative resection https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34115241/#:~:text=Lipopolysaccharides%20increase%20the%20risk%20of,extracellular%20traps%20after%20curative%20resection 

26. Purification and Characterization of a Corrinoid-Compound in an Edible Cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae as a Nutritional Supplementary Food https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jf062300r 

27. Biological Activity of Pseudovitamin B12 on Cobalamin-Dependent Methylmalonyl-CoA Mutase and Methionine Synthase in Mammalian Cultured COS-7 Cells https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32709013/ 

28. Biological Activity of Pseudovitamin B12 on Cobalamin-Dependent Methylmalonyl-CoA Mutase and Methionine Synthase in Mammalian Cultured COS-7 Cells https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7396987/#:~:text=Adenyl%20cobamide%20(commonly%20known%20as,has%20not%20been%20studied%20well 

29. The commercial potential of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, a nitrogen-fixing edible cyanobacterium https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10811-024-03214-0 

30. Spasmolytic Effects of Aphanizomenon Flos Aquae (AFA) Extract on the Human Colon Contractility https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8539423/ 

31. Amphetamine, past and present – a pharmacological and clinical perspective https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3666194/ 

 

33. Amphetamines promote mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage in pulmonary hypertension https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/90427 

34. Mitochondria: key players in the neurotoxic effects of amphetamines https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00204-015-1478-9 

37. Mitochondria: key players in the neurotoxic effects of amphetamines https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00204-015-1478-9 

38.  Amphetamines promote mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage in pulmonary hypertension https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/90427

39. Spirulina- An Edible Cyanobacterium with Potential Therapeutic Health Benefits and Toxicological Consequences https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/27697061.2022.2103852 

40. Microcystins and Cyanobacterial Contaminants in the French Small-Scale Productions of Spirulina (Limnospira sp.) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37368655/ 

41. Microbiota and Cyanotoxin Content of Retail Spirulina Supplements and Spirulina Supplemented Foods https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37317149/ 

42. Detection of the hepatotoxic microcystins in 36 kinds of cyanobacteria Spirulina food products in China https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18569007/ 

43. Detection of microcystin producing cyanobacteria in Spirulina dietary supplements using multiplex HRM quantitative PCR https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10811-016-1011-4 

44. Detection of Cyanotoxins in Algae Dietary Supplements https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28245621/ 

45. Neurotoxin BMAA and its isomeric amino acids in cyanobacteria and cyanobacteria-based food supplements https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30448548/ 

46. Environmental Neurotoxin β-N-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) as a Widely Occurring Putative Pathogenic Factor in Neurodegenerative Diseases https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9781992/ 

47. Spirulina- An Edible Cyanobacterium with Potential Therapeutic Health Benefits and Toxicological Consequences https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35916491/ 

48. Determination of β-N-methylamino-L-alanine, N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine, and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid in Food Products Containing Cyanobacteria by Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Tandem Mass Spectrometry: Single-Laboratory Validation https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26651568/ 

49. Neurotoxin BMAA and its isomeric amino acids in cyanobacteria and cyanobacteria-based food supplements https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30448548/ 

53. α-Diaminobutyric Acid-Linked Hairpin Polyamides https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2140246/#:~:text=17,20 

54. The `neurotoxicity' of l-2,4-diaminobutyric acid https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1198561/ 

 

55. The Cyanotoxin 2,4-DAB Reduces Viability and Causes Behavioral and Molecular Dysfunctions Associated with Neurodegeneration in Larval Zebrafish https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12640-021-00465-4#:~:text=Here%2C%20we%20evaluate%20the%20toxic,three%20in%20the%20zebrafish%20model 

56. Effects of environmental concentrations of toxins BMAA and its isomers DAB and AEG on zebrafish larvae https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651324011217#:~:text=These%20isomers%20are%20often%20found,showed%20alterations%20in%20swimming%20behaviour

57.  Environmental microcystin targets the microbiome and increases the risk of intestinal inflammatory pathology via NOX2 in underlying murine model of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-45009-1 

58. Exposure to microcystin-LR promotes the progression of colitis-associated colorectal cancer by inducing barrier disruption and gut microbiota dysbiosis https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39053045/#:~:text=Exposure%20to%20microcystin%2DLR%20promotes,disruption%20and%20gut%20microbiota%20dysbiosis \

59. Exposure to Microcystin-LR Promotes Colorectal Cancer Progression by Altering Gut Microbiota and Associated Metabolites in APCmin/+ Mice https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/16/5/212#:~:text=It%20is%20worth%20noting%20that,potentially%20exacerbating%20colorectal%20tumor%20progression 

60. Reduction of gut microbial diversity and short chain fatty acids in BALB/c mice exposure to microcystin-LR https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32772242/#:~:text=The%20present%20study%20was%20to,;%20Short%2Dchain%20fatty%20acid 

61. Prior exposure to microcystin alters host gut resistome and is associated with dysregulated immune homeostasis in translatable mouse models https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-15708-3 

62. Microcystins and Cyanobacterial Contaminants in the French Small-Scale Productions of Spirulina https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10302721/ 

63. Risk assessment of microcystin in dietary Aphanizomenon flos-aquae https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10499991/ 

64. Footprints of a microbial toxin from the gut microbiome to mesencephalic mitochondria https://gut.bmj.com/content/72/1/73 

66. Microbial BMAA elicits mitochondrial dysfunction, innate immunity activation, and Alzheimer’s disease features in cortical neurons https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7643281/ 

67. Microbial BMAA and the Pathway for Parkinson’s Disease Neurodegeneration  https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2020.00026/full 

68. Environmental Neurotoxin β-N-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) as a Widely Occurring Putative Pathogenic Factor in Neurodegenerative Diseases https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/12/2418#:~:text=BMAA%20has%20been%20shown%20to,central%20motor%20neurons%20which%20are 

69. Microbiota and Cyanotoxin Content of Retail Spirulina Supplements and Spirulina Supplemented Foods https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37317149/ 

70. A mixed immunoblistering disorder exhibiting features of bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus foliaceus associated with Spirulina algae intake https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18173606/ 

71. Activation of autoimmunity following use of immunostimulatory herbal supplements https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15210464/ 

72. Herbal supplement Spirulina stimulates inflammatory cytokine production in patients with dermatomyositis in vitro https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10665953/#:~:text=Our%20studies%20utilizing%20DM%20PBMC's,patients%20with%20autoimmune%20skin%20diseases 

73. Acute rhabdomyolysis caused by Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18434120/ 

75. Lipid and lipopolysaccharide constituents of cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis (Cyanophyceae, Nostocales) https://www.jstor.org/stable/24816959 

78. Antagonism of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Blood Pressure Attenuation and Vascular Contractility https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.107.146100 

79. Implications for the role of lipopolysaccharide in the development of atherosclerosis https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1050173821000992 

80. Lipopolysaccharide responsiveness is an independent predictor of death in patients with chronic heart failure https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26264758/#:~:text=Lipopolysaccharide%20responsiveness%20is%20an%20independent,patients%20with%20chronic%20heart%20failure 

81. Gut‐Derived Serum Lipopolysaccharide is Associated With Enhanced Risk of Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events in Atrial Fibrillation: Effect of Adherence to Mediterranean Diet https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5669181/ 

85. Lipopolysaccharides increase the risk of colorectal cancer recurrence and metastasis due to the induction of neutrophil extracellular traps after curative resection https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34115241/#:~:text=Lipopolysaccharides%20increase%20the%20risk%20of,extracellular%20traps%20after%20curative%20resection 

86. Pseudovitamin B(12) is the predominant cobamide of an algal health food, spirulina tablets https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10552882/ 

87. Vitamin B-12 content and bioavailability of spirulina and nori in rats https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/095528639190073E 

88. Biological Activity of Pseudovitamin B12 on Cobalamin-Dependent Methylmalonyl-CoA Mutase and Methionine Synthase in Mammalian Cultured COS-7 Cells https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7396987/ 

89. Submerged and Solid-State Fermentation of Spirulina with Lactic Acid Bacteria Strains: Antimicrobial Properties and the Formation of Bioactive Compounds of Protein Origin https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9952912/ 

90. Microbiota and Cyanotoxin Content of Retail Spirulina Supplements and Spirulina Supplemented Foods https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10221061/#:~:text=It%20is%20also%20possible%20that,were%20detected%20in%20ten%20samples 

91. Severe neonatal hypercalcemia related to maternal exposure to nutritional supplement containing Spirulina https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21842336/ 

92. Beta-phenylethylamine inhibits K+ currents in neocortical neurons of the rat: a possible mechanism of beta-phenylethylamine-induced seizures https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18679007/ 

93. Pharmacology of beta-phenylethylamine-induced seizures in mice https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6141619/ 

94. Amphetamine-associated seizures: clinical features and prognosis https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21314677/ 

95. Are Cyanotoxins the Only Toxic Compound Potentially Present in Microalgae Supplements? Results from a Study of Ecological and Non-Ecological Products https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32872271/ 

96. Biologically active or just “pseudo”-vitamin B12 as predominant form in algae-based nutritional supplements? https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889157522000825 

98. Immunohistochemical Demonstration of a Lipopolysaccharide in the Cell Wall of a Eukaryote, the Green Alga, Chlorella https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/1543397 

99. Endotoxin-like properties of an extract from a symbiotic, eukaryotic Chlorella-like green alga https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/096805199600300601

100.                         Immunostimulatory bioactivity of algal polysaccharides from Chlorella pyrenoidosa activates macrophages via Toll-like receptor 4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19916503/

101.                         Immunohistochemical Demonstration of a Lipopolysaccharide in the Cell Wall of a Eukaryote, the Green Alga, Chlorella https://www.academia.edu/52049750/Immunohistochemical_Demonstration_of_a_Lipopolysaccharide_in_the_Cell_Wall_of_a_Eukaryote_the_Green_Alga_Chlorella?uc-sb-sw=810749

102.                         Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Septic Shock https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/lipopolysaccharide-induced-septic-shock

103.                         Microcystins in water and in microalgae: Do microcystins as microalgae contaminants warrant the current public alarm? https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214750018300386#:~:text=More%20recently%2C%20a%20study%20where,supported%20by%20convincing%20scientific%20data 

104.                         Are Cyanotoxins the Only Toxic Compound Potentially Present in Microalgae Supplements? Results from a Study of Ecological and Non-Ecological Products https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7551278/#:~:text=Abstract,some%20heavy%20metals%2C%20especially%20Pb 

105.                         Effects of toxic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa on the morphology of green alga Chlorella vulgaris https://www.limnology-journal.org/articles/limn/full_html/2019/01/limn180029/limn180029.html 

106.                         Identification of harmful protozoa in outdoor cultivation of Chlorella and the use of ultrasonication to control contamination https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211926418300109#:~:text=Based%20on%20morphological%20observation%2C%20Chlorella,enough%20to%20understand%20the%20contamination 

107.                         The multidisciplinary approach to safety and toxicity assessment of microalgae-based food supplements following clinical cases of poisoning https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1568988315000669#:~:text=Cells%20of%20Spirulina%20sp.,et%20al.%2C%202001).

108.                         Screening of multi-class cyanotoxins in algal dietary supplements marketed in North America https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211926423001959 

109.                         Microcystins in water and in microalgae: Do microcystins as microalgae contaminants warrant the current public alarm? https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214750018300386#:~:text=More%20recently%2C%20a%20study%20where,supported%20by%20convincing%20scientific%20data 

110.                         Phenethylamine in chlorella alleviates high-fat diet-induced mouse liver damage by regulating generation of methylglyoxal  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41538-021-00105-3 

111.                         Inhibitory impacts of Spirulina platensis and Chlorella vulgaris extracts on biogenic amine accumulation in sardine fillets  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212429221002121 

112.                         Identification of harmful protozoa in outdoor cultivation of Chlorella and the use of ultrasonication to control contamination https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211926418300109#:~:text=Based%20on%20morphological%20observation%2C%20Chlorella,enough%20to%20understand%20the%20contamination 

113.                         The multidisciplinary approach to safety and toxicity assessment of microalgae-based food supplements following clinical cases of poisoning https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1568988315000669?via%3Dihub

114.                         Chlorella-induced thrombocytopenia https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30569955/ 

115.                         Photoautotrophically Grown Chlorella vulgaris Shows Genotoxic Potential but No Apoptotic Effect in Epithelial Cells https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31271028/ 

116.                         Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis following ingestion of Chlorella tablets https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17273860/ 

117.                         Chlorella-induced psychosis https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23680061/ 

118.                         Update on the adverse effects of microcystins on the liver https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33617868/ 

119.                         Role of cyanotoxins in the development and promotion of cancer https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214750024001811#:~:text=Important%20cyanotoxins%2C%20such%20as%20microcystins,development%20and%20promotion%20of%20cancer 

120.                         Microcystin-LR Regulates Interaction between Tumor Cells and Macrophages via the IRE1α/XBP1 Signaling Pathway to Promote the Progression of Colorectal Cancer https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39273011/#:~:text=This%20study%20investigates%20the%20interaction,microcystin%2DLR;%20tumor%20microenvironment 

122.                         Effects of long-term low dose saxitoxin exposure on nerve damage in mice https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8312470/ 

123.                        Effects of cyanobacterial toxins on the human gastrointestinal tract and the mucosal innate immune system https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12302-019-0212-2 

124.                          The effects of immunostimulatory herbal supplements on autoimmune skin diseases https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7736300/ 

125.                         Spirulan from blue-green algae inhibits fibrin and blood clots: its potent antithrombotic effects https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25651404/#:~:text=Spirulan%20from%20blue%2Dgreen%20algae,clots:%20its%20potent%20antithrombotic%20effects 

126.                         Effects of amphetamines on mitochondrial function: role of free radicals and oxidative stress https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12804698/#:~:text=Abstract,of%20amphetamine%2Dinduced%20cellular%20necrosis 

127.                         Pharmacological studies with endogenous enhancer substances: beta-phenylethylamine, tryptamine, and their synthetic derivatives https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15093948/

128.                         Association between Fruit and Vegetable Consumption and Depression Symptoms in Young People and Adults Aged 15–45: A Systematic Review of Cohort Studies https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7831325/ 

129.                         Fruit and Vegetable Intake and Mental Health in Adults: A Systematic Review https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7019743/ 

130.                         Fruit and vegetable intake is inversely associated with perceived stress across the adult lifespan https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33940399/ 

131.                         Associations of specific types of fruit and vegetables with perceived stress in adults: the AusDiab study https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9363314/ 

132.                         Frequency of fruit consumption and savoury snacking predict psychological health; selective mediation via cognitive failures https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/frequency-of-fruit-consumption-and-savoury-snacking-predict-psychological-health-selective-mediation-via-cognitive-failures/B6A4BDD48E1A39C133DF454860A53239 

133.                          Dietary Neurotransmitters: A Narrative Review on Current Knowledge https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5986471/#:~:text=(that%20is%2C%20hazelnut)%20%5B,synthesis%20of%20serotonin%20%5B59%5D 

135.                         Association of Proinflammatory Diet With Frailty Onset Among Adults With and Without Depressive Symptoms: Results From the Framingham Offspring Study https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/78/2/250/6643326?login=false 

136.                         Physical activity offsets genetic risk for incident depression assessed via electronic health records in a biobank cohort study https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/da.22967 

137.                          Physical Activity Reduces Clinical Symptoms and Restores Neuroplasticity in Major Depression https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.660642/full 

138.                          Magnitude, timing and duration of mood state and cognitive effects of acute moderate exercise in major depressive disorder https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1469029222000401#bib28 

139.                         High fat diet consumption results in mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and oligodendrocyte loss in the central nervous system https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925443919303588#:~:text=When%20cultured%20under%20high%20saturated,a%20loss%20of%20myelinating%20cells

140.                         High-fat diet and neuroinflammation: The role of mitochondria https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043661825000404#:~:text=Research%20has%20shown%20that%20high,218%5D%2C%20%5B242%5D 

141.                         A high‐fat diet impairs mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics, and the respiratory chain complex in rat myocardial tissues https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6220867/#:~:text=Abstract,abnormal%20mitochondrial%20density%20and%20morphology 

142.                         Feeding mitochondria: Potential role of nutritional components to improve critical illness convalescence https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261561418324269#:~:text=B%20vitamins%20and%20lipoic%20acid,is%20involved%20in%20mitochondrial%20biogenesis 

144.                         Exercise and mitochondrial health https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31674658/ 

145.                         Physical Exercise: A Novel Tool to Protect Mitochondrial Health https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2021.660068/full 

146.                         Health Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3649719/

147.                         Targeting Mitochondrial Biogenesis with Polyphenol Compounds https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/4946711#:~:text=Given%20the%20essential%20role%20of,their%20well%2Dknown%20antioxidant%20properties

148.                         Natural antioxidants from some fruits, seeds, foods, natural products, and associated health benefits: An update https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10084981/ 

149.                         Antioxidant Capacity and Cardiovascular Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables: A Proposal for Comparative Scales https://www.mdpi.com/1661-3821/4/4/39 

150.                         From diet to microbiota: how fruits and vegetables influence gut microbiota https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae008/7943348

 
 
 

Comments

The Question of Iodine
bottom of page